Heart Mountain - Adapting Behind Barbed Wire
Sitting at the foot of Heart Mountain in northern Wyoming, a few haunting remnants of the
46,000-acre camp still stand-–a hospital boiler house with its towering red chimney, two
hospital buildings, an administrative building, the concrete vault from the high school, a root
cellar, and a large excavation that once served as a swimming hole. These and other
reminders underscore the importance of preserving sites that are key to understanding U.S.
history even when that history isn't flattering or idyllic.
The federal government at first sought sites for humane, open-gated resettlement communities
in the Mountain states, but Gov. Nels Smith of Wyoming predicted there would be “Japs hanging
from every pine tree” should the evacuees be permitted to live in his state under such
permissive conditions. The federal government, therefore, agreed to the conditions that Smith
and his fellow western governors demanded: incarceration in “concentration camps” with guard
towers and barbed wire.
Construction of the barracks and other structures began in the summer of 1942. Two thousand
workers were needed to build the camp over the next sixty days, and Wyoming's low
unemployment rate was turned around within a matter of weeks.
Over the course of the three years it existed as a War Relocation Authority facility, from August
1942 to September 1945, some 13,997 internees passed through the Heart Mountain
internment camp. Many were destined to stay within its barbed wire confines the entire time. At
its peak, the camp population was 10,767.
First Train Arrives
The first trainload of internees arrived on August 11, 1942. The long train ride from the West
Coast had taken its toll. Evacuees came from California and Washington--6,448 from Los
Angeles County; 2,572 from Santa Clara County; 678 from San Francisco; and 843 from
Yakima/Washington Counties.
For the Issei, who had immigrated to America to build new lives in their adopted country,
removal to these inland locations meant the loss of homes, jobs, and businesses. Younger
Nisei (American-born second generation) and Sansei (third generation) suddenly were forced to
leave school and friends behind, with no idea as to when they might return.
Camp Management
The camp consisted of 468 barrack-style buildings sectioned into 20 blocks that served as
administration areas and living quarters. The tarpaper barracks were divided into apartments,
some single rooms and others slightly larger to accommodate families of up to six. Each unit
was furnished only with a stove for heat, a light fixture in the center of the room and an army cot
and two blankets for each person. Each block had a mess hall, unpartitioned toilet and shower
facilities and a laundry area.
There were 200 administrative employees, 124 soldiers, and three officers. Military police were
stationed in nine guard towers, equipped with high-beam searchlights.
Heart Mountain also ran a garment factory, a cabinet shop and a sawmill. The camp’s silk
screen shop produced posters for the Navy and other camps.
Medical Care
Doctors and dentists were recruited from among the internees to help tend to those who were
ill. Soon, the internees began to build a community infrastructure with the health care system
as a key component to address the community’s needs. Despite limitations in personnel and
equipment, 550 babies were born in the barbed-wire enclosed camp.
In November 1942, Japanese American hospital workers walked out because of pay
discrimination. Internee doctors were paid $19 per month, while Caucasian nurses working at
the camp’s hospital were paid $150 per month.
The Sentinel
Bill Hosokawa, who had worked as a journalist before the war, taught writing skills to others
and became editor of the camp newspaper. The Sentinel, was first published in October 1942
and distributed to 6,000 camp households every Saturday.
Resisters
Internees at all the camps were given a loyalty questionnaire. Although 95.9 per cent of the
Heart Mountain population answered the questionnaire positively, about 400 became "resisters
of conscience," insisting that their families' constitutional rights be restored before agreeing to
join the military. The Fair Play Committee thus became the only organized resistance by draft-
age Nisei. This action led to the largest mass trial in Wyoming history. In July 1944, 63 men
were convicted and sentenced to three years in federal penitentiaries in Kansas and
Washington.
442nd Regimental Combat Team
More than 800 from Heart Mountain served in the military, becoming members of the famed
442nd Regimental Combat Team, the most decorated unit in U.S. military history for its size and
length of service. Fifteen were killed in action, and two received the nation’s highest award, the
Medal of Honor. Of the ten Japanese American internment camps, Heart Mountain alone had
more than one Medal of Honor recipient.
Agriculture
In the spring of 1943, the camp’s agricultural efforts got underway. The internees had to first
complete the Shoshone Irrigation Project, which included a 5,000-foot canal. They then cleared
several thousand acres of sagebrush to make way for peas, beans, cabbage, carrots,
cantaloupe, watermelon, and other fruits and vegetables. Despite the local farmers’ doubts that
it could be done so late in the year, the autumn harvest yielded 1,065 tons of produce. The
following year, 2,500 tons was harvested. Milk was supplied through a creamery in Powell, but
the camp raised cattle, hogs and chickens for its own consumption. Heart Mountain had one of
the most successful agriculture programs of all the camps, introducing new crops that had
never before been grown in the region.
Camp Jobs
The internees worked at various jobs within the camp, but the WRA decided that the Japanese
could not be paid more than a private could in the army, whose salary was $21 a month. Most
jobs paid between $12 and $19 per month. Likewise, Japanese-American teachers were paid
$228 a year although Caucasian instructors earned $2,000 per year and senior teachers were
paid $2,600 annually.
Children and Education
The children at Heart Mountain started school on October 5, 1942, using barracks as
classrooms. Learning was a challenge because there were a limited number of books, and
students had to check one out if they had homework. Supplies and classroom furniture were
also hard to come by, and the chalkboard was a piece of plywood painted black. By the
following year, the elementary school was reorganized and construction of the new high school
was completed on May 27, 1943. It had regular classrooms, an auditorium/gymnasium, a
library, a large home economics room, a machine shop and a wood shop. Athletic teams
began competing with other local high schools, and the football team, the Heart Mountain
Eagles, suffered only one defeat in two years.
Religion
Heart Mountain had a Catholic church and a community Christian church, which held services
that were attended by all denominations. Although the practice of Buddhism was initially
discouraged by camp administrators, a Buddhist church was eventually established and such
group events as kabuki theater and bon odori (the annual festival for the dead) were allowed.
About two-thirds of those incarcerated at Heart Mountain were Buddhist.
Classes and Pastimes
Adults could take part in standard crafts and hobbies, such as sewing, knitting, woodcarving,
flower arranging, bonsai, calligraphy, haiku poetry and the games of goh and shogi.
Sports and Social Clubs
Like most teens and young adults, the Nisei gravitated toward activities like sports and social
gatherings. With an average age of between 17 and 21, the Nisei quickly found ways to interact
with each other. Numerous social clubs and youth organizations developed, holding get-
togethers where they danced to 78-rpm recordings by Glenn Miller, Bing Crosby, Count Basie,
and other popular music. There was even a traveling band that supplied live music on
occasion. For many, it was the first time they had met young Japanese Americans from other
areas.
Scouting
Boy Scout and Girl Scout programs, a major part of Nisei life before the war, were revived at
Heart Mountain. Koyasan Troop 379 was the largest, but soon 13 Boy Scout Troops and one
Girl Scout Troop had been reactivated. The rustic environment lent itself to Scouting-related
activities, such as swimming, hiking, and recreational camping on the banks of the Shoshone
River and around Heart Mountain. Scouts led the raising of the flag and Pledge of Allegiance
each morning, and they had a drum and bugle corps and a drill team for girls. They held
meetings and jamborees with scouts from nearby Powell and Cody. It was during one of these
jamborees that Norman Mineta and Alan Simpson met as youngsters and became lifelong
friends and political allies, both serving in Congress as elected representatives.
Political Climate
Many Wyoming residents, who had initially opposed the presence of nearly 11,000 Japanese
Americans in their midst, ultimately came to accept the internees who shopped and utilized
services in nearby Cody and Powell. As restrictions began to ease, the internees were given
opportunities to move from the camp to work or go to college in the Midwest or the East.
Leaving Camp
Internees were allowed to return to the West Coast beginning in early 1945. Each person was
given $25 and a train ticket. But only 2,000 people had left Heart Mountain by June 1945.
Wyoming officials tried to discourage Japanese Americans from remaining in Wyoming and
had earlier passed laws that prevented them from owning land and voting. Nevertheless, the
last trainload of internees left Heart Mountain on November 10, 1945.
After World War II, most of the land and residential barracks were sold to former servicemen
and hopeful farmers. Driving along Highway 14 today, it is possible to spot barracks-shaped
storage sheds and barns, reminders of a unique albeit dark period in our nation's history.
Sitting at the foot of Heart Mountain in northern Wyoming, a few haunting remnants of the
46,000-acre camp still stand-–a hospital boiler house with its towering red chimney, two
hospital buildings, an administrative building, the concrete vault from the high school, a root
cellar, and a large excavation that once served as a swimming hole. These and other
reminders underscore the importance of preserving sites that are key to understanding U.S.
history even when that history isn't flattering or idyllic.
The federal government at first sought sites for humane, open-gated resettlement communities
in the Mountain states, but Gov. Nels Smith of Wyoming predicted there would be “Japs hanging
from every pine tree” should the evacuees be permitted to live in his state under such
permissive conditions. The federal government, therefore, agreed to the conditions that Smith
and his fellow western governors demanded: incarceration in “concentration camps” with guard
towers and barbed wire.
Construction of the barracks and other structures began in the summer of 1942. Two thousand
workers were needed to build the camp over the next sixty days, and Wyoming's low
unemployment rate was turned around within a matter of weeks.
Over the course of the three years it existed as a War Relocation Authority facility, from August
1942 to September 1945, some 13,997 internees passed through the Heart Mountain
internment camp. Many were destined to stay within its barbed wire confines the entire time. At
its peak, the camp population was 10,767.
First Train Arrives
The first trainload of internees arrived on August 11, 1942. The long train ride from the West
Coast had taken its toll. Evacuees came from California and Washington--6,448 from Los
Angeles County; 2,572 from Santa Clara County; 678 from San Francisco; and 843 from
Yakima/Washington Counties.
For the Issei, who had immigrated to America to build new lives in their adopted country,
removal to these inland locations meant the loss of homes, jobs, and businesses. Younger
Nisei (American-born second generation) and Sansei (third generation) suddenly were forced to
leave school and friends behind, with no idea as to when they might return.
Camp Management
The camp consisted of 468 barrack-style buildings sectioned into 20 blocks that served as
administration areas and living quarters. The tarpaper barracks were divided into apartments,
some single rooms and others slightly larger to accommodate families of up to six. Each unit
was furnished only with a stove for heat, a light fixture in the center of the room and an army cot
and two blankets for each person. Each block had a mess hall, unpartitioned toilet and shower
facilities and a laundry area.
There were 200 administrative employees, 124 soldiers, and three officers. Military police were
stationed in nine guard towers, equipped with high-beam searchlights.
Heart Mountain also ran a garment factory, a cabinet shop and a sawmill. The camp’s silk
screen shop produced posters for the Navy and other camps.
Medical Care
Doctors and dentists were recruited from among the internees to help tend to those who were
ill. Soon, the internees began to build a community infrastructure with the health care system
as a key component to address the community’s needs. Despite limitations in personnel and
equipment, 550 babies were born in the barbed-wire enclosed camp.
In November 1942, Japanese American hospital workers walked out because of pay
discrimination. Internee doctors were paid $19 per month, while Caucasian nurses working at
the camp’s hospital were paid $150 per month.
The Sentinel
Bill Hosokawa, who had worked as a journalist before the war, taught writing skills to others
and became editor of the camp newspaper. The Sentinel, was first published in October 1942
and distributed to 6,000 camp households every Saturday.
Resisters
Internees at all the camps were given a loyalty questionnaire. Although 95.9 per cent of the
Heart Mountain population answered the questionnaire positively, about 400 became "resisters
of conscience," insisting that their families' constitutional rights be restored before agreeing to
join the military. The Fair Play Committee thus became the only organized resistance by draft-
age Nisei. This action led to the largest mass trial in Wyoming history. In July 1944, 63 men
were convicted and sentenced to three years in federal penitentiaries in Kansas and
Washington.
442nd Regimental Combat Team
More than 800 from Heart Mountain served in the military, becoming members of the famed
442nd Regimental Combat Team, the most decorated unit in U.S. military history for its size and
length of service. Fifteen were killed in action, and two received the nation’s highest award, the
Medal of Honor. Of the ten Japanese American internment camps, Heart Mountain alone had
more than one Medal of Honor recipient.
Agriculture
In the spring of 1943, the camp’s agricultural efforts got underway. The internees had to first
complete the Shoshone Irrigation Project, which included a 5,000-foot canal. They then cleared
several thousand acres of sagebrush to make way for peas, beans, cabbage, carrots,
cantaloupe, watermelon, and other fruits and vegetables. Despite the local farmers’ doubts that
it could be done so late in the year, the autumn harvest yielded 1,065 tons of produce. The
following year, 2,500 tons was harvested. Milk was supplied through a creamery in Powell, but
the camp raised cattle, hogs and chickens for its own consumption. Heart Mountain had one of
the most successful agriculture programs of all the camps, introducing new crops that had
never before been grown in the region.
Camp Jobs
The internees worked at various jobs within the camp, but the WRA decided that the Japanese
could not be paid more than a private could in the army, whose salary was $21 a month. Most
jobs paid between $12 and $19 per month. Likewise, Japanese-American teachers were paid
$228 a year although Caucasian instructors earned $2,000 per year and senior teachers were
paid $2,600 annually.
Children and Education
The children at Heart Mountain started school on October 5, 1942, using barracks as
classrooms. Learning was a challenge because there were a limited number of books, and
students had to check one out if they had homework. Supplies and classroom furniture were
also hard to come by, and the chalkboard was a piece of plywood painted black. By the
following year, the elementary school was reorganized and construction of the new high school
was completed on May 27, 1943. It had regular classrooms, an auditorium/gymnasium, a
library, a large home economics room, a machine shop and a wood shop. Athletic teams
began competing with other local high schools, and the football team, the Heart Mountain
Eagles, suffered only one defeat in two years.
Religion
Heart Mountain had a Catholic church and a community Christian church, which held services
that were attended by all denominations. Although the practice of Buddhism was initially
discouraged by camp administrators, a Buddhist church was eventually established and such
group events as kabuki theater and bon odori (the annual festival for the dead) were allowed.
About two-thirds of those incarcerated at Heart Mountain were Buddhist.
Classes and Pastimes
Adults could take part in standard crafts and hobbies, such as sewing, knitting, woodcarving,
flower arranging, bonsai, calligraphy, haiku poetry and the games of goh and shogi.
Sports and Social Clubs
Like most teens and young adults, the Nisei gravitated toward activities like sports and social
gatherings. With an average age of between 17 and 21, the Nisei quickly found ways to interact
with each other. Numerous social clubs and youth organizations developed, holding get-
togethers where they danced to 78-rpm recordings by Glenn Miller, Bing Crosby, Count Basie,
and other popular music. There was even a traveling band that supplied live music on
occasion. For many, it was the first time they had met young Japanese Americans from other
areas.
Scouting
Boy Scout and Girl Scout programs, a major part of Nisei life before the war, were revived at
Heart Mountain. Koyasan Troop 379 was the largest, but soon 13 Boy Scout Troops and one
Girl Scout Troop had been reactivated. The rustic environment lent itself to Scouting-related
activities, such as swimming, hiking, and recreational camping on the banks of the Shoshone
River and around Heart Mountain. Scouts led the raising of the flag and Pledge of Allegiance
each morning, and they had a drum and bugle corps and a drill team for girls. They held
meetings and jamborees with scouts from nearby Powell and Cody. It was during one of these
jamborees that Norman Mineta and Alan Simpson met as youngsters and became lifelong
friends and political allies, both serving in Congress as elected representatives.
Political Climate
Many Wyoming residents, who had initially opposed the presence of nearly 11,000 Japanese
Americans in their midst, ultimately came to accept the internees who shopped and utilized
services in nearby Cody and Powell. As restrictions began to ease, the internees were given
opportunities to move from the camp to work or go to college in the Midwest or the East.
Leaving Camp
Internees were allowed to return to the West Coast beginning in early 1945. Each person was
given $25 and a train ticket. But only 2,000 people had left Heart Mountain by June 1945.
Wyoming officials tried to discourage Japanese Americans from remaining in Wyoming and
had earlier passed laws that prevented them from owning land and voting. Nevertheless, the
last trainload of internees left Heart Mountain on November 10, 1945.
After World War II, most of the land and residential barracks were sold to former servicemen
and hopeful farmers. Driving along Highway 14 today, it is possible to spot barracks-shaped
storage sheds and barns, reminders of a unique albeit dark period in our nation's history.
The Shishima family arrives at Heart
Mountain.
Mountain.
Children in nursery school
High school students gather between
classes.
classes.
Dr. Tanaka fills a molar.
Bill Hosokawa teaches a writing class.
A crowd gathers to bid farewell to the first
group of internees to leave Heart
Mountain.
group of internees to leave Heart
Mountain.
Interscholastic basketball game between
Heart Mountain & Powell High Schools.
Heart Mountain & Powell High Schools.
Joan Ishiyama gets a smile out of a
young internee.
young internee.
An Issei plays a game of shogi.
Internees assemble for the morning flag-raising and reciting of the Pledge of Allegiance accompanied by the
Boy Scout Drum and Bugle Corps. --PHOTO BY HANSEL MIETH & OTTO HAGEL
Boy Scout Drum and Bugle Corps. --PHOTO BY HANSEL MIETH & OTTO HAGEL
A freight train arrives with crates
containing the internees' belongings.
containing the internees' belongings.
Three Boy Scouts take part in a morning
flag ceremony.
flag ceremony.
HEART MOUNTAIN WYOMING FOUNDATION
Life in Camp
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Moe Yonemura talks to young men about
enlisting in the Army.
enlisting in the Army.
| Pictured left to right -From arrival to postwar: (1) As a train arrives, internees help lift an elderly patient off the train; (2) Eiichi Sakauye shows off a watermelon grown in camp as a result of the agricultural system he helped to create; (3) Workers unload coal; (4) The Iwagaki family reunites in San Jose after the war, posing with their son, Sgt. Ken Iwagaki (right) and son-in-law Capt. James Higuchi (left) , who are en route to their overseas assignments. . |
The trial begins for 63 Heart Mountain
resisters on June 12, 1944.
resisters on June 12, 1944.